...any advertiser. “I couldn't publish in the NFPA Journal because I name names,” he says.

Schulte also slams some other expert witnesses for allegedly false statements. “They commit perjury,” but it never gets out because lawsuits are often settled, he says.

Schulte says he never has been sued, though he expects to be. But he is not worried: “As long as I have documentation, I can say whatever I want.”

U.S. Building Fires
Fires
(mil.) 		Civilian deaths Civilian injuries Direct property damage ($ bil.)
1985

2.37

6,185

28,425

7.32

1986

2.27

5,850

26,825

6.71

1987

2.33

5,810

28,215

7.16

1988

2.44

6,215

30,800

8.35

1989

2.12

5,410

28,250

8.66

1990

2.02

5,195

28,600

7.82

1991

2.04

4,465

29,375

9.47

1992

1.96

4,730

28,700

8.3

1993

1.95

4,635

30,475

8.55

1994

2.05

4,275

27,250

8.15

1995

1.97

4,585

25,775

8.92

1996

1.98

4,990

25,550

9.41

1997

1.8

4,050

23,750

8.53

1998

1.76

4,035

23,100

8.63

1999

1.82

3,570

21,875

10.02

Source: NFPA


U.S High-Rise Fires
 
Fires
(thous.)
Civilian
deaths
Civilian
injuries
Direct property
damage ($ mil.)
1985
23.4
73
850
125.2
1986
20
48
658
80
1987
18.3
73
856
72
1988
19.7
98
909
216.7
1989
19.5
121
915
183.7
1990
16.8
87
731
122.1
1991
17.8
40
832
216.3
1992
18.2
44
1,013
176.8
1993
15.3
45
831
86.2
1994
15
61
1,136
89.9
1995
13
56
758
65.6
1996
15.2
66
861
263.9
1997
14.4
46
633
144.1
1998
13.3
37
804
121.2
1999
15.3
39
708
80.8
Source: National estimates based on National fire incident reporting system survey

Concrete Is No Better Than Steel for Structural Fire Resistance

Steel frames have been on the defensive since 9/11, when jet-fuel-triggered fires sapped the strength of the structure of the twin towers of the World Trade Center, ultimately finishing off the job the terrorists started. But sources say there is no preferred structural material for fire resistance. All building materials, including concrete, are fire-resistant, not fireproof, they say.

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At higher temperatures, steel loses both yield and tensile strength, along with the modulus of elasticity. At 1,100° F, steel generally retains about half of the strength and stiffness it has at ambient conditions, according to the American Institute of Steel Construction in Facts for Steel Buildings—Fire. This is comparable to the strength and stiffness reductions for ordinary concrete, says AISC.

Steel loses about 80% of its strength and stiffness at 1,300° F and almost all at about 2,200° F. Although likely deformed, fire-damaged steel will regain its pre-fire properties at ambient conditions, but there likely will be annealing and a reduction in yield strength. Fire-resistant steel, developed in Japan and not widely used in the U.S., has improved strength retention ratios at elevated temperatures, though it has similar variations in modulus of elasticity, says AISC.

Concrete spalls when exposed to elevated temperatures. This action exposes the reinforcing steel to the heat, causing the steel and structure to lose strength.

Spalling can be violent, like an explosion. The entrained water in concrete heats up in a fire, turns to steam and expands. The expansive force can be strong enough to...